72. Preservation of Remaining Open Lands................... 262 73. Allotments............................................. 267 74. Small Holdings......................................... 269 75. Government Sanitary Control............................ 271 76. Industries Carried on by Government.................... 273 77. Bibliography........................................... 276 CHAPTER X The Extension Of Voluntary Association _Trade Unions, Trusts, and Cooeperation_ 78. The Rise of Trade Unions............................... 277 79. Opposition of the Law and of Public Opinion. The Combination Acts....................................... 279 80. Legalization and Popular Acceptance of Trade Unions.... 281 81. The Growth of Trade Unions............................. 288 82. Federation of Trade Unions............................. 289 83. Employers' Organizations............................... 293 84. Trusts and Trade Combinations.......................... 294 85. Cooeperation in Distribution............................ 295 86. Cooeperation in Production.............................. 300 87. Cooeperation in Farming................................. 302 88. Cooeperation in Credit.................................. 306 89. Profit Sharing......................................... 307 90. Socialism.............................................. 310 91. Bibliography........................................... 311 An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND CHAPTER I GROWTH OF THE NATION To The Middle Of The Fourteenth Century *1. The Geography of England.*--The British Isles lie northwest of the Continent of Europe. They are separated from it by the Channel and the North Sea, at the narrowest only twenty miles wide, and at the broadest not more than three hundred. The greatest length of England from north to south is three hundred and sixty-five miles, and its greatest breadth some two hundred and eighty miles. Its area, with Wales, is 58,320 square miles, being somewhat more than one-quarter the size of France or of Germany, just one-half the size of Italy, and somewhat larger than either Pennsylvania or New York. The backbone of the island is near the western coast, and consists of a body of hard granitic and volcanic rock rising into mountains of two or three thousand feet in height. These do not form one continuous chain but are in several detached groups. On the eastern flank of these mountains and underlying all the rest of the island is a series of stratified rocks. The harder portions of these strata still stand up as long ridges,--the "wolds," "wealds," "moors," and "downs" of the more eastern and south-eastern parts of England. The softer strata have been worn away into great broad valleys, furnishing the central and eastern plains or lowlands of the country.