A.D. 1. Abd-ar-Rahman I. 756-788 2. Hisham I. 788-796 3. Al-Hakim I. 796-822 4. Abd-ar-Rahman II. 822-852 5. Muhammad I. 852-886 6. Al-Mundhir 886-888 7. Abd-Allah 888-912 8. Abd-ar-Rahman III. 912-961 He was one of the greatest of the rulers of Cordova. Under this prince, who at last assumed the title of Khalif and Commander of the Faithful, the unity of Muhammadan Spain was for the time restored. A.D. 9. Al-Hakim II. 961-976 10. Hisham II. 976-1009 He was a Khalif only in name, while Muhammad Bin Ali Amir, surnamed Al-Mansur, was the real ruler or regent till his death in A.D. 1002. He was succeeded by his son, Abd-al-Malik, who ruled successfully till his death in A.D. 1008, and was followed by his brother, Abd-ar-Rahman, who was beheaded in A.D. 1009, Hisham II. having been previously deposed. A.D. 11. Muhammad II. (Al-Mahdi-billah) 1009-1009 12. Sulaiman 1009-1010 Hisham II. for the second time 1010-1013 Sulaiman for the second time 1013-1016 (1) Ali bin Hammud, a Berber chief 1016-1018 13. Abd-ar-Rahman IV. 1018-1019 (2) Al Kasim bin Hammud 1019-1023 14. Abd-ar-Rahman V. 1023-1024 15. Muhammad III. 1024-1025 (3) Yabya bin Ali bin Hammud 1025-1027 16. Hisham III. 1027-1031 A complete list of all the Muhammadan rulers in Spain will be found in Makkari's history of these dynasties, translated by Gayangos. CHAPTER II. LITERARY. The oral communications of the ancient Egyptians, Medes and Persians, the two classic tongues of Europe, the Sanscrit of the Hindus and the Hebrew of the Jews, have long since ceased to be living languages. For the last twelve centuries no Western language has preserved its grammar, its style, or its literature intact and intelligible to the people of the present day. But two Eastern tongues have come down from ages past to our own times, and continue to exist unchanged in books, and, to a certain extent, also unchanged in language, and these are Chinese and Arabic. In China, though the dialects differ in the various provinces of the empire, still the written language has remained the same for centuries. In Arabia the Arabic language has retained its originality without very much dialectical alteration.