=Chaldea.=--The earliest literature of which the archæologists have thus far found trustworthy evidence appears to be that of the Chaldeans. Their “books,” consisting of baked clay tablets, on which the cuneiform characters had been imprinted with a stylus, were well fitted to withstand the ravages of time, being practically imperishable by either fire or water. The important discovery of specimens of the earlier literature of Chaldea was due to Sir Henry Layard. In 1845 he was fortunate enough, while investigating the mounds at Koyunjik (ancient Nineveh) now identified with the ruins of the palaces of Sennacherib and Asshurbanipal (B.C. 650), to stumble into the chambers which had contained the royal library. Although he was not himself able to decipher the early cuneiform characters with which were covered the masses of clay tablets and fragments of tablets brought to light by his excavations, he readily recognized the importance of the discovery, and took pains to forward to the British Museum a large number of those in the best state of preservation. There they lay until 1870, when George Smith undertook the task of arranging and deciphering them. Smith had been originally employed in the Museum as an engraver, but in the course of his work in engraving cuneiform texts, he had become interested in their study, and by dint of persistent application he soon came to be one of the few acknowledged authorities on the subject. Months of patient labor were given to the piecing together of the thousands of scattered fragments contained in Layard’s shipment. Then, owing to the enterprise of the London _Daily Telegraph_ (which in 1876 made a novel precedent in journalism by printing from week to week, in juxtaposition with the news of the day, decipherings of the Chaldean writings of five thousand years back), Smith was enabled to go to Mesopotamia, and in three successive journeys very largely to increase the collections of tablets, which finally comprised over 10,000 specimens. Smith’s untimely death by fever during his third sojourn in the East put a check for a time upon both the collecting and the deciphering, but the latter was later continued by workers who became equally skilled, and of a large number of the tablets translations have been put into print. During the past ten years, a great development has been given to the collecting and deciphering of the tablets by the labors of such scholars as Dieulafoy, Fritz Hommel, John P. Peters, and others.