Buddha, or Gautama, philosopher, poet, reformer, and redeemer of his people, began his work towards the close of the sixth century B.C. His teachings gave rise to an enormous production of theological literature in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan. The information concerning the materials used by the earlier writers of India, and as to the methods by which their books were placed before the public, is very meagre. According to Louisy, the use of _diphtherai_, or dressed skins, prevailed to some extent. Prepared palm-leaves were also utilized, particularly by the Buddhist writers of Ceylon. There appears to have been no general or popular circulation of the manuscripts. These were costly, and were beyond the means of any but the very wealthy, while it was also the case that the knowledge of reading was confined to but limited circles. It seems probable that the manuscripts were in the main prepared in the monasteries or temples, and that they were exchanged between the temples. The teachings of the writers were brought before the people by preaching or recitations. Certain of the princes also attached to their courts poets and philosophers, and practically the only libraries or collections of manuscripts outside of those in the temples, must have been those contained in the palaces of the few princes who possessed literary tastes. There could have been no other way of securing for an author compensation for his work excepting through princely favors or from the treasuries of the temples. =Persia.=--The first name that comes down to us connected with the literature of Persia is that of Zoroaster. The Persian form of his name is Zarathustra, meaning the gold-star. The date of his birth is said to be more uncertain than that of Homer, but he is supposed to have lived about 1000 B.C. He is credited with the authorship of the _Gâthas_, hymns partly religious, partly political. To Zoroaster were also revealed the teachings which later took shape in the sacred scriptures of the Persians, the _Zend-Avesta_ (commentary-lore). Of these scriptures, only one division, the _Vendidad_, has been preserved complete. Of the other parts only fragments remain. It is estimated that the _Vendidad_ (which means the regulations against demons) represents about one twentieth of the original collection. The oldest portion of the _Avesta_ is the _Yasna_, or sacrificial liturgy. This is a grouping together of the commentaries surrounding the _Gâthas_. A third division is the _Visparad_, or the _Seasons_, in which are set forth the lists of the objects sacred to each season. A fourth division is the _Yescht-Sade_, or little _Avesta_, comprising prayers and hymns.