The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before nouns; e.g., _iogoreta te_ 'dirty hands,' where _iogoreta_ is the preterit of the verb _iogore,uru_ 'I became dirty.' _Caita qió_ means 'a written book' and _caita_ is the preterit of the verb _caqi,u_ I write.' The abstract (_abstracta_), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., {117} _facari_ means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb _facari,u_ 'I measure' while _fajime_ means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb _fajime,uru_ 'I begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle _mono_, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., _mono_ before _caqi_ makes _monocaqi_ 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., _caqimono_ 'a writing.' The particle _goto_ placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., _mi_ is the root of the verb _mi,uru_ 'I see,' and _migoto_ is 'a visible thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while _qiqi_ is the root of the verb _qiqi,u_ 'I hear,' and _qiqigoto_ means 'a thing which can be heard, or is worthy of being heard.' If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the meaning of the action; e.g., _foxi_ is the root of the verb _foxi,u_ 'to dry under the sun'; but, if _ivo_ 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of the expression _foxiivo_ becomes 'fish dried in the sun.' When the particle _dógu_ 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., _varaidógu_ 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' _caqidógu_ 'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.' The particle _me_ when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the terminus of the action; e.g., _avaxe_ is the root of the verb _avaxe,uru_ 'to unite or join two things,' and _avaxeme_ means 'junction.' The same is true of other forms. An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in _i_ if the _i_ is changed to _sa_; e.g., _nagai_ means 'is long,' and _nagasa_ means 'length.' The adjectives ending in _na_ change the _na_ to _sa_ in order to form abstract nouns; e.g., _aqiraca na_ which means 'clear' will become _aqiracasa_ 'clarity.'