One result of the extreme snow conditions of early 1969 was that deer tended to gravitate to lakes, where snow was shallow and footing was firm. Initially upon disturbance by human beings, and probably by wolves, these deer usually headed inland, but it is apparent from a number of kills examined that when pressed hard by wolves inland, deer headed out onto lakes where possible. Apparently they could run there with better footing. However, frozen lakes also provide wolves with good running conditions, and even seem to give them an advantage (Rutter and Pimlott 1968, Mech 1970), so many of these deer were killed (fig. 11). Stenlund (1955, p. 44) reported as follows on years of low snowfall, the opposite condition, which demonstrated the same relationship between snow depth and kills on lakes: "The winters of 1951-52 and 1952-53 were abnormally mild with little early snow. As a result, few wolf-killed deer appeared on the lakes and most deer attempted to outrun wolves in the woods." [Illustration: _Figure 11.--On frozen lakes, wolves often seem to have the advantage over deer, such as in this case where the wolf (center) has just killed a deer and is trying to discourage a raven from joining him in the feed. (Photo courtesy of L. D. Frenzel_.)] Thus it appears that extreme snow conditions in our study area increase the vulnerability of deer to wolf predation in three ways: (1) by causing a decline in the health and nutritional state of some members of the deer population; (2) by hindering the escapability of the deer; and (3) by causing deer to congregate on frozen lakes where wolves have the advantage in running. SUMMARY During the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69, the interactions of wolves (_Canis lupus_) and white-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus_) were observed in northeastern Minnesota from aircraft. Snow depth and supporting ability were also measured during these winters, and the ability of wolves to capture deer was compared for a period of usual snow conditions versus a period of extreme snow conditions. It was found that during February and March 1969, when snow remained from 2.5 to 3.9 feet deep and failed to support running deer, wolves were able to capture deer more easily. This was evidenced by kills that were left partly or completely uneaten, and by a higher rate of predation by radiotagged wolves and their associates. Although both wolves and deer floundered in the extremely deep snow, the relatively lighter weight-load-on-track of wolves evidently gave them a greater advantage than under the usual snow conditions, when wolves were observed floundering more than deer. This factor, plus a decline in the health and vigor of some segments of the deer population and a tendency for deer to congregate on frozen lakes, where wolves have an advantage, help explain the increased vulnerability of deer to wolf predation during the winters of deep snow. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS