FRITZ MORSTEIN MARX. ADAMS HOUSE, HARVARD UNIVERSITY. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply indebted to the five gentlemen who have read the entire manuscript in some one of its stages. My father, Judge Paul Myron Wentworth Linebarger, has given me tireless help in this as in all my projects, for which I shall never be able to tender sufficient thanks. My teacher, Professor Harley Farnsworth MacNair of the University of Chicago, supplied numerous addenda and corrigenda of great value from his knowledge of modern Chinese history. Professor Arthur N. Holcombe of Harvard University suggested changes which have made the work more realistic. Assistance offered me by the Sinologue and philosopher, Professor H. H. Dubs of Duke University, was of the utmost value. Professor Paul H. Clyde, Duke University, provided many useful and significant hints, especially in the field of Sino-foreign relations. I am also under obligation to Mr. J. C. Yang, Library of Congress, and Professor James R. Ware, Harvard University, for further suggestions; to Professor Charles Sidney Gardner and Dr. John Fairbank, Harvard University, and Professor George Kennedy, Yale University, for aid in the general course of my Chinese studies; to Professor Maria Magdalena Schoch, until recently of the University of Hamburg, Germany, for a critical reading of the revised manuscript; and to Miss Hazel Foster and Mr. M. F. Nelson for similar assistance. Mrs. W. M. Gibson, Miss Whitty Daniel, and my wife have helped in the preparation of the manuscript. P. M. A. L. DURHAM, N. C., _August_, 1938. CONTENTS PAGE FOREWORD BY FRITZ MORSTEIN MARX vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi INTRODUCTION 1 Duality or Confluence? 1 The Peculiarities of Old China 2 The Peculiarities of Modern China 6 The World Significance of Chinese Government 7 The Main Factors in Modern Chinese Government 9 The Approach 11 FIRST PART MOVEMENTS CHAPTER I CONFUCIANISM 13 The Ages before Confucius 13 The Ideology Called Confucian 15 Government in the Confucian Ideology 18 The Replacement of the Confucian Ideology 22 The Chief Movements in the Rebuilding of China 24 Confucianism in the Republic 26