_Duke of Argyll, The Afghan Question from 1841 to 1878_. _G. B. Malleson, The Russo-Afghan Question_. ----------AFGHANISTAN: End---------- AFRICA: The name as anciently applied. See LIBYANS. AFRICA: The Roman Province. "Territorial sovereignty over the whole of North Africa had doubtless already been claimed on the part of the Roman Republic, perhaps as a portion of the Carthaginian inheritance, perhaps because 'our sea' early became one of the fundamental ideas of the Roman commonwealth; and, in so far, all its coasts were regarded by the Romans even of the developed republic as their true property. Nor had this claim of Rome ever been properly contested by the larger states of North Africa after the destruction of Carthage. … The arrangements which the emperors made were carried out quite after the same way in the territory of the dependent princes as in the immediate territory of Rome; it was the Roman government that regulated the boundaries in all North Africa, and constituted Roman communities at its discretion, in the kingdom of Mauretania no less than in the province of Numidia. We cannot therefore speak, in the strict sense, of a Roman subjugation of North Africa. The Romans did not conquer it like the Phœnicians or the French; but they ruled over Numidia as over Mauretania, first as suzerains, then as successors of the native governments. … As for the previous rulers, so also doubtless for Roman civilization there was to be found a limit to the south, but hardly so for the Roman territorial supremacy. There is never mention of any formal extension or taking back of the frontier in Africa. … The former territory of Carthage and the larger part of the earlier kingdom of Numidia, united with it by the dictator Cæsar, or, as they also called it, the old and new Africa, formed until the end of the reign of Tiberius the province of that name [Africa], which extended from the boundary of Cyrene to the river Ampsaga, embracing the modern state of Tripoli, as well as Tunis and the French province of Constantine. … Mauretania was not a heritage like Africa and Numidia. … The Romans can scarcely have taken over the Empire of the Mauretanian kings in quite the same extent as these possessed it; but … probably the whole south as far as the great desert passed as imperial land." _T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 13._ See, also, CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, and CYRENE. AFRICA: The Mediæval City. See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1543-1560. AFRICA: Moslem conquest and Moslem States in the North. See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST, &c.: A. D. 640-646; 647-709, and 908-1171; also BARBARY STATES; EGYPT: A. D. 1250-1517, and after; and SUDAN. AFRICA: Portuguese Exploration of the Atlantic Coast. The rounding of the Cape.