[Sidenote: Reaction in the papacy against these pressures.] The middle of the eleventh century ushers in an epoch for the papacy and for Europe. It is marked by an attempt at a moral reformation in the Church--by a struggle for securing for the papacy independence both of the Emperors of Germany and of the neighbouring Italian nobles--thus far the pope being the mere officer of the emperor, and often the creature of the surrounding nobility--by the conversion of the temporalities of the Church, heretofore indirect, into absolute possessions, by securing territories given "to the Church, the blessed Peter, and the Roman republic" to the first of these beneficiaries, excluding the last. [Sidenote: Preparation for a concentration of the papal power.] As events proceeded, these minor affairs converged, and out of their union arose the great conflict of the imperial and papal powers for supremacy. The same policy which had succeeded in depriving the Roman people of any voice in appointments of popes--which had secularized the Church in Italy, for a while seized all the material resources of Europe through the device of the Crusades, and nearly established a papal autocracy in all Europe. These political events demand from us notice, since from them arose intellectual consequences of the utmost importance. The second Lateran Council, under Nicolas II., accomplished the result of vesting the elective power for the papacy in the cardinals. That was a great revolution. It was this council which gave to Berengar his choice between death and recantation. [Sidenote: Three parties in Italy.] There were at this period three powers engaged in Italy--the Imperial, the Church party, and the Italian nobles. For the sake of holding the last in check--since it was the nearest, it required the most unremitting attention--Hildebrand had advised the popes who were his immediate predecessors to use the Normans, who were settled in the south of the peninsula, by whom the lands of the nobles were devastated. Thus the difficulties of their position led the popes to a repetition of their ancient policy; and as they had, in old times, sought the protection of the Frankish kings, so now they sought that of the Normans. [Sidenote: Hildebrand becomes pope.] But in the midst of the dissensions and tumults of the times, a great man was emerging--Hildebrand, who, with almost superhuman self-denial, again and again abstained from making himself pope. On the death of Alexander II. his opportunity came, and, with acceptable force, he was raised to that dignity, A.D. 1073.