=Courts=, Jews of Poland exempted from jurisdiction of municipal and ecclesiastic C's., I 45 f, 51 f, 84, 94, 103 cases between Jews tried by royal C's., or Voyevoda C. (in Lithuania, Starosta C.), I 45 f, 51 f, 59 f "Jewish Judge," Polish official nominated by Jews, attached to Voyevoda C., I 46, 52, 192 Voyevoda C. tries cases between Jews and Christians, I 84, 191; acts as Court of Appeals, I 191; Kahal elders attached to, I 84 tax-farmer Yosko and employees placed under jurisdiction of royal C., I 71 Jews on noble estates placed under C's. of nobles, I 84 Municipal C's. claim jurisdiction over Jews, I 93 f ritual murder cases tried by C's. without proper jurisdiction, I 95 f civil and partly criminal cases between Jews tried by C. of rabbis and Kahal elders, I 83, 105 f Kahal C. granted right of imposing _herem_ and other penalties, I 73, 105 f Kahal C. granted exclusive jurisdiction in cases between Jews, I 191 Kahal C. consists of rabbis as judges and Kahal elders as jury, I 191 Council of Four Lands acts as C., I 111; appoints provincial judges, I 111 Kahal C. of Vilna issues _herem_ against Hasidim (1772), I 237 Kahals recognized as C's. by Russian Senate (1776), I 309 cases between Jews tried by C's. of District and Gubernatorial Kahals, I 309 Gubernatorial Kahals act as C's. of Appeal, I 309 cases between Jews and Christians tried by municipal C's., I 309 Senate questions legality of special Jewish C's. (1782), I 310 Jews admitted to membership in municipal C's. (1783), I 310 cases between Jews tried by municipal C's. (1786), I 313 Jews represented on municipal C's. by elective jurymen, I 313 Kahal C's. limited to spiritual affairs (1786), I 313; (1795), I 319 Jews of Lithuania plead for preservation of Kahal C's. (1795), I 320 Statute of 1804 places Jews under jurisdiction of Russian C's., I 344 Jews continue to resort to Kahal C., I 367; see Kahal, Jewish Judge, and Rabbi =Cox, Samuel S.=, of New York, protests in Congress against pogroms, II 294 ff