I. _Russia._ 1. Economic characteristics 42 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 42 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 42 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational groups 43 d. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and non-Jews in the Pale 43 e. Economic activities of the Jews 44 2. Social characteristics 46 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 46 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 46 c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 47 d. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews 48 II. _Roumania._ 1. Economic characteristics 48 a. The Jews as merchants and entrepreneurs 48 b. The Jewish artisans 49 c. Participation of the Jews in industry and commerce 49 2. Social characteristics 49 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 49 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 49 c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 50 III. _Austria-Hungary._ 1. Economic characteristics 50 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 50 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 51 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational groups 51 Galicia 51 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 51 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 51 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational groups 51 d. Industrial and commercial position of the Jews in East and West Galicia 52 2. Social characteristics 52 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 52 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 52 c. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews 52 IV. _Summary._ CHAPTER IV THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY