Prayer.--Liturgy of St. James, of St. Basil, and of St. John Chrysostom.--Apostolical Constitutions.--The Sacrifice of the Mass.--Administration of Baptism.--Canonical Penances.--Plan and Arrangement of Churches.--Ecclesiastical Hierarchy.--The Ceremony of Ordination.--Church Bells.--The Tocsin.--The Poetry of Gothic Churches.--Breviary and Missal of Pius V.--Ceremonies used at the Seven Sacraments.--Excommunication.--The Bull _In Cœnâ Domini_.--Processions and Mystery Plays at the Easter Solemnities.--Instrument of Peace.--Consecrated Bread.--The Pyx.--The Dove. THE POPES 245 Influence of the Papacy in the Reformation of Early Society.--St. Leo the Great.--Origin of the Temporal Power of the Popes.--Gregory the Great.--The Iconoclastic Emperors.--Stephen III. delivered by France.--Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West.--Photius.--The Diet of Worms.--Gregory VII.; his Plan for a Christian Republic.--Urban II.--The Crusades.--Calixtus II.; Termination of the Dispute as to Investiture.--Innocent III.--Struggle of Boniface VIII. against Philippe le Bel.--The Great Western Schism.--Council of Florence.--Battle of Lepanto.--Council of Trent. THE SECULAR CLERGY 274 The Minor and the Major Orders in the Early Centuries of the Church.--Establishment of Tithes originally voluntary, and afterwards obligatory.--Influence of the Bishops.--Supremacy of the See of Rome.--Form of Episcopal Oath in the Early Centuries.--Reform of Abuses by the Councils.--Remarkable sayings of Charlemagne and Hincmar.--Public Education created by the Church.--The Establishment of the Communes favoured by the Bishops.--The Beaumont Law.--Struggle with the Bourgeoisie in the Fifteenth Century.--The Council of Trent.--Institution of Seminaries. THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS 299 The First Monks.--St. Anthony and his Disciples.--St. Pachomius and St. Athanasius.--St. Eusebius and St. Basilius.--Cenobitism in the East and in the West.--St. Benedict and the Benedictine Code.--Monkish Dress.--St. Columba.--List of the Monasteries in Charlemagne’s Time.--Services rendered by the Monks to Civilisation, Arts, and Letters.--Reform of the Religious Orders in the Twelfth Century.--St. Norbert.--St. Bernard.--St. Dominic.--St. Francis of Assisi.--The Carmelites.--The Bernardines.--The Barnabites.--The Jesuits. CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS 339