SEC. 8. VII. When a man in an early stage of reflection upon his experience has decided that objects immediately perceived are not the real things but merely their mental copies or representatives, he may think of these "real" things in several ways. He may believe in a world of "real" things, consisting of groups of "real" qualities, external to consciousness; he may accept such "real" things, but add to them a substratum or substance, distinct from the qualities; or he may believe that the "real" exists as mere substratum, substance, or noumenon, and that all qualities, being merely its revelation to mind, exist within the circle of consciousness alone. The first position is one not often taken. The second is that held by Locke,[2] who believed that, corresponding to our ideas of objects, there exist substances possessed of certain primary qualities, and having an underlying substance or substratum. The third represents the view of the Kantian,[3] who, to be consistent, must deny to his noumenon any qualities whatever. How he is to do this without having it lapse into utter nothingness is a problem for him to solve. [2] Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Bk. 2, Chap. 2, § I, and Bk. 2, Chap. 23, § 1. _et seq._ [3] Kritik der reinen Vernunft.--"Von dem Grunde der Unterscheidung aller Gegenstände überhaupt in _Phænomena_ und _Noumena_." Kant's Sämmtliche Werke, herausgegeben von Hartenstein. Leipzig, 1867, 3er Band, s. 209, _et seq._ See also, Kritik der Praktischen Vernunft; Vorrede; and the discussion: "Wie eine Erweiterung der reinen Vernunft in praktischer Absicht, ohne damit ihr Erkenntniss als speculativ, zugleich zu erweitern, zu denken möglich sei?" I Th. II B. II Hptst.; same edition, 5er Bd., s. 5, 140. I am not concerned here with the inner contradiction of the Kantian system. The notion of noumena predominantly in Kant's mind, was, I think, about as I have stated. He would not, of course, have denied "reality" to phenomena, but his misconception of Berkeley, and the satisfaction with which he settles down to the noumenal in the Critique of the Practical Reason, show that he felt toward the "blos Erscheinung" very much as Locke felt toward mere ideas. Cf. "Essay," Bk. 4, Chap. 11, § 7. The disciple of Locke has, therefore, in discussing all the uses of the word same, to consider the sameness of: 1. Things immediately known. 2. Groups of "real" qualities in an extra-mental world, more or less like what is immediately known. 3. Substance; the "I know not what" to which Locke clung through all difficulties. The man who holds the first of the three views above mentioned need only consider the first and the second of these; and the Kantian need only consider the first and the third, rebaptizing the latter "noumenon" or "thing-in-itself."