⁵ "C’étaient des hommes tirés de régiones fort différentes de l’Afrique équatoriale ou équinoxiale. En partant du nord du continent noir, des Sénégalais, des Yolofs, des Foulahs, des Bambaras, des Mandingoes, des Bissagots, des Sofas se rencontraient, pêle mêle, dans les marchés à esclaves de la colonie. Au sud de Sierra-Leone, on embarquait pour Saint-Domingue des négres de la Côte d’Or, dont les Aradas, les Socos, les Fantins, les Caplaous, les Mines et les Agoñés. De la Côte des Esclaves on a tiré les Cotocolis, les Popos, les Fidas ou Fœdas. Viennet ensuite les Haousas, les Ibos, les Nagos; les Congos tirés de la côte du Congo ou d’Angola, partagés en sous-divisions de Congos-May youmbés, Congos-Moussombés et Mondongues. De l’Afrique orientale ont été tirés les négres de la côte de Mosambique, dont les Mosambiques proprement dits, les Quiriams et les Quilos, Quilos et les Montifiats." "M. Roosevelt, président des états-Unis et la République d’Haïti," par A. Firmin, published 1905, p. 232-233. "Here in Haiti, there are recognizable traces of fourteen different African tribes." Bishop Holly. "Haitian Revolution," T. A. Steward, p. 282. The government set up could but be a military oligarchy. It is well known that there can be no such thing as personal liberty unless there is what may be termed a sovereignty apart from, behind and above the government.⁶ With us that power behind the government, that sovereignty, is the people; but in Haiti in 1804 and for many years thereafter there was no such thing as people in a political sense. There were population, army, government, but not people. Their condition was like that of the Europeans generally during the Middle ages. In Europe there were populations, subjects, governments, vassals, tenants, serfs, slaves, soldiers, knights and lords, but not people. By people politically, we mean a body held together by some internal bond, by a spiritual consensus. Perhaps to this extent the Haitian population of 1804 might be vaguely called a people. But the idea of people politically includes also that this body must have a common consciousness of fundamental right, and a common sense of necessary duty; and then possess force of character adequate to the attainment of these rights and the fulfilment of this duty. Rights precede duty; and not vice versa. When complete the idea of people is that body which holds in its hands the sovereignty. Governments are divine, but are created by evolution, coming to us as comes our daily bread, through divinely appointed processes. Rights like the ground, are a natural endowment; government like bread is a production. It is no reflection upon Haiti to state the historic fact that in 1804 and for many years thereafter there was no such thing on her soil as people, in a political sense. The idea and the love of