330 Besides the above, see _Gioja_, N. Prospetto, I, 246 ff.; _Scialoja_, 42; _J. B. Say_, Traité, I, ch. 2; _Hufeland_, N. Grundlegung, I, 42, 54; _Gr. Soden_, Nat. Œkonomie, I, 142 ff. _Hermann_, St. Untersuchungen, 20 ff., distinguishes three politico-economical points of view; that of the producer, that of the consumer, and that of the whole nation’s economy. The producer calls his labor productive, in case he receives back his outlay of capital with the rate of profit usual in the trade of the country. To this point of view, therefore, every service which is paid for, according to wish, seems productive. On the other hand, the consumer ascribes productiveness to all those kinds of labor the achievements of which he may use, and which he can obtain at a convenient price. Whenever, therefore, he pays for a service voluntarily, he acknowledges its productiveness. Lastly, from a national-economical point of view, all labor is considered productive which increases the quantity of goods exposed for sale in the market; and this, personal services do. The technic productiveness, which depends on the execution of the technic ideas floating before the mind of the workman, must be distinguished from this economic productiveness. It is possible that, technically labor may be very productive, and yet cause economic loss; for instance, the fine arts and the so-called master pieces of the trades! See _Seneca_, De Benef., II, 33. _H._ (33) furnishes a very good refutation of the doctrine that a great deal depends on whether the labor has been paid from capital or from income. _Eiselen_, Volkswirthschaft (1843), 27 ff., remarks, that the laborer, for instance, who grows corn, must besides look after his health and the preservation of his house; this is a part of his necessary aggregate labor. Why, then, should it be called unproductive when such secondary labor is performed by particular persons? Otherwise the farmer would have no time whatever for his principal business! Edinburgh Review, 1804, IV, 343 ff.; _Wakefield_, An Essay upon Political Economy, 1804, who is concerned mainly with the theory of the productiveness of labor. _L. Lauderdale_ says, that when the nation’s wealth is estimated according to its value in use, all useful labor is productive; and that when estimated according to its value in exchange, all labor that is paid is productive. (Inquiry, ch. 3.) _Stein_ (Lehrbuch, 68; Tüb. Zeitschr., 1868, 230) conditions the notion of productiveness by the presence of a superfluity of values. But, it may be asked, does a family, which does no more than support itself, labor unproductively? (Compare, however, § 30.) _J. S. Mill_ took a surprisingly retrograde step in the doctrine on this point, in his