The deciphering of hieroglyphics, cuneiform inscriptions, and remains of other dead and forgotten languages, is argument in causation. Examples cannot conveniently be quoted even in a condensed form, but this kind of reasoning is most interesting dialectically from the slightness of the analogies that are nevertheless found to give valid conclusions. *** This is considered argument by Whately-- I. Louis | is a good king -----------------------+--------------------------- The governor of France | _therefore the g. of F. is is Louis | a good king_ The supposed case is a verbal proposition, serving to rename the subject of precedent. There is no reasoning. If we already know that Louis is a good king and is also the governor of France (the given matters of fact), there is no rational imagination involved in rearranging these data as in the proposed conclusion. *** 'He who calls you a man speaks truly; he who calls you a fool calls you a man; therefore he who calls you a fool speaks truly.'--A fallacy of cross reasoning, and the predicate is a class. All fools | are men --------------+-------- You are a man | _N. C._ *** 'Nothing is heavier than platina; feathers are heavier than nothing; therefore feathers are heavier than platina.'--A trivial equivoque. The following is more subtle. 'Theft is a crime; theft was encouraged by the laws of Sparta; therefore the laws of Sparta encouraged crime.'--At most the laws of Sparta encouraged one crime; but there is a fallacy of equivocation. Taking things surreptitiously from the person in whose possession they may be, is not a crime--is not theft--in a society so communistic as the Spartan. There it was encouraged as an exercise in adroitness. This example shows the necessity of knowing the matter of the argument. *** 'Warm countries alone produce wine; Spain is a warm country; therefore Spain produces wine.' V. Wine | is p. in w. countries -------------------+---------------------- Spain is a warm c. | _N. C._ *** 'Meat and drink are necessaries of life; the revenues of Vitellius were spent in meat and drink; therefore the revenues of Vitellius were spent on the necessaries of life.'--Fallacy of composition: meat and drink in moderate quantities are necessaries of one life, but not food of every kind and in excessive quantities. *** 'He who is most hungry eats most; he who eats least is most hungry; therefore he who eats least eats most.'--A fallacy of accident: he who eats least does not _at the same time_ eat most. ***