Other culprits in the saguaro problem are man himself and his livestock. Around 1880, soon after the first railroad reached Tucson, a cattle boom began in southern Arizona. The valleys were soon overstocked, and cattle scoured the mountainsides in search of food. By 1893, when drought and starvation decimated the herds, the land had been severely overgrazed. Though the monument was established in 1933, grazing in the Rincon Mountain Section’s main cactus forest continued until 1958. (Elsewhere in the monument, it still goes on.) Compounding the problem, woodcutters removed acres of mesquite and other trees. In the center of the present Cactus Forest Loop Drive, lime kilns devoured quantities of woody fuel. Further upsetting the desert’s natural balance, ranchers and Government agents poisoned coyotes and shot hawks and other predators—in the belief that this would benefit the owners of livestock. This unrestrained assault on the environment had unfortunate effects on saguaros as well as on the human economy. Overgrazing may have resulted in an increase in kangaroo rats (which benefit from bare ground on which to hunt seeds) and certain other rodents adapted to an open sort of ground cover. Man’s killing of predators, their natural enemies, further encouraged proliferation of these rodents, which some people say are especially destructive of saguaro seeds and young plants. Whatever the effect these rodents have on the saguaros, the removal of ground cover intensified erosion and reduced the chances for the seeds to germinate and grow. And certainly the cutting of desert trees removed shade that would have benefited young saguaros. In the Tucson Mountain Section, which is near the northeastern edge of the Sonoran Desert, freezing temperatures are perhaps the most important environmental factor in saguaro mortality. [Illustration: Looking toward the Santa Catalina Mountains from Cactus Forest Drive in September 1942.] Although the causes of decline of the cactus forest lying northwest of Tanque Verde Ridge are still something of a puzzle, several facts are clear: the saguaro is not becoming extinct; in rocky habitats many young saguaros are surviving, promising continued stands for the future; in non-rocky habitats, some young saguaros are surviving, ensuring that at least thin stands will endure in these areas. Furthermore, since grazing was stopped here, ground cover has improved—a plus factor for the saguaro’s welfare. On the negative side, it is possible that, in addition to suffering from climatic, biotic, and human pressures, the once-dense mature stands of the monument are in the down-phase of a natural fluctuation. It is possible, too, that these stands owed their exceptional richness to an unusually favorable past environment which may not occur again. We can hope, however, that sometime in the not-distant future the total environmental balance will shift once again in favor of the giant cactus.