Based on the idea of a direct creation of all [34] living beings, the genera were then accepted as the created forms. They were therefore regarded as the real existing types, and it was generally surmised that species and varieties owed their origin to subsequent changes under the influence of external conditions. Even Linnaeus agreed with this view in his first treatises and in his "Philosophical Botany" he still kept to the idea that all genera had been created at once with the beginning of life. Afterwards Linnaeus changed his opinion on this important point, and adopted species as the units of the system. He declared them to be the created forms, and by this decree, at once reduced the genera to the rank of artificial groups. Linnaeus was well aware that this conception was wholly arbitrary, and that even the species are not real indivisible entities. But he simply forbade the study of lesser subdivisions. At his time he was quite justified in doing so, because the first task of the systematic botanists was the clearing up of the chaos of forms and the bringing of them into connection with their real allies. Linnaeus himself designated the subdivisions of the species as varieties, but in doing so he followed two clearly distinct principles. In some cases his species were real plants, and the varieties seemed to be derived from them by [35] some simple changes. They were subordinated to the parent-species. In other cases his species were groups of lesser forms of equal value, and it was not possible to discern which was the primary and which were the derivatives. These two methods of subdivision seem in the main, and notwithstanding their relatively imperfect application in many single examples, to correspond with two really distinct cases. The derivative varieties are distinguished from the parent-species by some single, but striking mark, and often this attribute manifests itself as the loss of some apparent quality. The loss of spines and of hairs and the loss of blue and red flower-colors are the most notorious, but in rarer cases many single peculiarities may disappear, thereby constituting a variety. This relation of varieties to the parent-species is gradually increasing in importance in the estimation of botanists, sharply contrasting with those cases, in which such dependency is not to be met with.