Secret proceedings and denial of opportunity for defence 512 Perfected by Francis I. 514 Revised under Louis XIV. 517 Torture _avec réserve des preuves_ 518 Illegal extension of the system in the Netherlands 521 Germany—the Caroline Constitutions 522 CHAPTER VIII. FINAL SHAPE OF THE TORTURE SYSTEM. The Roman Law engrafted on German Jurisprudence 524 Theoretical exemptions practically annulled 525 Limitations disregarded in practice 527 Influence of the system on the judge 534 Arbitrary abuses 539 Torture of witnesses 541 Grades of torture 543 Denial of opportunities for defence 544 Confirmation of confession necessary 548 Inconsistencies in the torture system 550 Influence of witch-trials in aggravating the torture system 553 Use of charms to produce insensibility 556 Deceit used in failure of torture 558 Torture in monasteries 560 CHAPTER IX. ENGLAND AND THE NORTHERN RACES. Early use of torture in Iceland 561 Influence of the jury-trial in delaying introduction of Torture in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden 562 England—Torture unknown to the Common Law 563 Introduced as a concession to the royal prerogative 566 Influence of witch-trials 570 Scotland—frightful severity of torture trials 572 CHAPTER X. DECLINE OF THE TORTURE SYSTEM. Opponents arise—Vives, Montaigne, Gräfe, etc.—Discussion in the schools 575 Abolished in Prussia in 1740 579 in Saxony, Austria, Russia 580 Continued in Baden till 1831—Retention of the Inquisitorial Process, and Revival of Torture in the German Empire 581 Abolished in Spain in 1812 582 in France, 1780-1789 583 in Italy in 1786 586 Retained in Naples 587 Recent instances of its use 588 I.