[56] Mr Freeman says: "In the eleventh century, the word _castel_ was introduced into our language to mark something which was evidently quite distinct from the familiar _burh_ of ancient times.... Ordericus speaks of the thing and its name as something distinctly French: "munitiones quas Galli castella nuncupant." The castles which were now introduced into England seem to have been new inventions in Normandy itself. William of Jumièges distinctly makes the building of castles to have been one of the main signs and causes of the general disorder of the days of William's minority, and he seems to speak of the practice as something new." _N. C._, ii., 606. It is surprising that after so clear a statement as this, Mr Freeman should have fallen under the influence of Mr Clark's _burh_ theory, and should completely have confused castles and boroughs. [57] _Codex Diplomaticus_, i., 138. [58] _History of Rochester_, 1772, p. 21. [59] Stevenson's edition of _Asser_, 331. See Appendix D. [60] _Asser_, c. xlix. [61] Worcester, Chester, Tamworth, Stafford, Warwick, Hertford, Buckingham, Bedford, Maldon, Huntingdon, Colchester, Stamford, and Nottingham. [62] _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 216. [63] Buckingham is the only place which is included in both lists. See Appendix E. [64] _Domesday Book and Beyond_, 188. See Appendix E. Southwark, one of the names, which is not called a borough in Domesday, retains its name of _The Borough_ to the present day. [65] No Roman remains have been found in either place. [66] _Beauties of England and Wales_, Oxfordshire. [67] See Skeat's _Dictionary_, "Timber." [68] Excavation has recently shown that many of the great hill-forts were permanently inhabited, and it is now considered improbable that they were originally built as camps of refuge. It seems more likely that this use, of which there are undoubted instances in historic times (see Cæsar, _Bello Gallico_, vi., 10, and v., 21), belonged to a more advanced stage of development, when population had moved down into the lower and cultivatable lands, but still used their old forts in cases of emergency. [69] _Ante_, p. 21. [70] Haverfield, in V. C. H. Worcester, _Romano-British Worcester_, i. [71] _Early Fortifications in Scotland_, p. 105. [72] Gairdner and Mullinger, _Introduction to the Study of English History_, 268. [73] The tower called Cæsar's Tower is really a mural tower of the 13th century. E. W. Cox, "Chester Castle," in _Chester Hist. and Archæol. Soc._, v., 239. [74] Cox, as above. See also Shrubsole, "The Age of the City Walls of Chester," _Arch. Journ._, xliv., 1887. The present wall, which includes the castle, is an extension probably not earlier than James I.'s reign. [75] The charter is given in Ormerod's _History of Cheshire_, ii., 405. [76] _Journ. of Brit. Arch. Ass._, 1875, p. 153. [77] _Itin._, ii., 2.