We start with the subject of houses and furniture. When Henry VIII. began to reign, well-to-do people in towns lived, as a rule, in houses built principally of timber, the fronts being often ornamented with rich carvings of fanciful and grotesque objects. The upper storeys projected; so much so, indeed, that in a street people in the attics on either side could almost shake hands. There was a reason for building in this way. As the houses were of perishable material, each storey gave protection from the weather to the storey beneath it. Such a quantity of timber being used, there was a great danger of fire, and the warning of the bellmen who proclaimed the hours of the night in London was certainly needed, when, to their instructions to “be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead,” they added, “Take care of your fire and candle.” The labouring people in the country lived in houses constructed of the first things that came to hand—often nothing but wattle and mud or clay. When the mud or clay cracked, under the influence of summer’s heat or winter’s frost, it was a simple matter with the same material to “stop a hole to keep the wind away.” Ventilation was very defective, and Erasmus attributes the frequent sicknesses with which England was then visited in a great measure to the want of fresh air in the dwelling-houses. The ideas that regulated the furnishing and decoration of the houses of the upper classes form a marked contrast to those prevailing nowadays. The furniture was more massive, and there was less of it. The bedchamber of Henry VIII. contained only a couple of joint cupboards, a joint stool, two hand-irons, a fire-fork, a pair of tongs, a fire-pan, and a steel mirror covered with yellow velvet. Carpets came into use before the reign of Henry VIII. was far advanced, though in the reign of Queen Mary rushes still strewed the floor of the presence-chamber. Feather beds were used in Henry VIII.’s reign by the upper classes. When they went travelling, they were no longer content with the floor or a hard bench at halting-places, but generally carried portable beds (packed in leather cases) with them on horseback. In the lower ranks of life straw pallets, or rough mats with a round log for a pillow, formed the ordinary provision for sleeping. Ladies’ dresses amongst the nobility in Henry VIII.’s reign had a certain formality, but in many points were elegant and becoming. Early in the sixteenth century they were made low and cut square about the neck: the sleeves were tight at the shoulder, but suddenly became very large and open, showing the puffed sleeves of the under-dress. The long skirts were worn open in front to the waist, showing the kirtle or petticoat. Sometimes, however, dresses were worn high, with short waists and a small falling collar.