The highest courts were those of the _Kaziaskers_, the grand vizier, and the Divan. The _Kaziaskers_, besides attending to the cases that were brought before them in the Divan and at the palace gate after its close, held court at all other times in their own houses.[693] Mohammed II had provided that, when cases were brought primarily to them in the city of Constantinople, those which concerned Moslems should come before the _Kaziasker_ of Rumelia and those which concerned non-Moslems before the _Kaziasker_ of Anatolia. The titles of these judges show their original functions as judges of the armies of Rumelia and Anatolia, offices which they continued to exercise in time of war. In this capacity, also, appeals came up to them in time of peace from the _Subashis_ and _Sanjak Beys_ in matters touching _kullar_. The power of the _Kaziaskers_ had been extended to include the headship of all the judges of their respective regions, and the appointment of all judges, subject to the approval of the pashas. In the Divan, and as “Pillars of the State,” they ranked next to the viziers; they had the first right of audience with the sultan at the close of each Divan; and until the reign of Suleiman they had had all the authority over the _Ulema_ that later came to the _Mufti_. They had immense incomes and were highly honored and esteemed. The grand vizier was actual head of the Moslem Institution as substitute for the sultan; accordingly his court was the highest court of appeal for all ordinary civil cases. It was also, however, like all other courts in the empire, a court of first instance. He decided great numbers of cases, large and small, for rich and poor alike. Justice was refused to no one; it was rendered either by the grand vizier’s own decision, or by reference for prompt settlement to one of the _Kaziaskers_ or to some other judge.[694] The Divan’s principal deliberative business as a court was the trial of capital cases of great officials. Although many such persons were executed, it is strenuously denied that Suleiman ever ordered death without a trial.[695] Nevertheless, the process was usually held in the absence of the accused person and without his knowledge; he might be at the end of the empire. In case of conviction a _Chaush_ was sent to the condemned man’s place of residence, bearing secretly a written commission, which was given to the nearest official who had power to execute. The condemned man had at best a few hours in which to settle his affairs and make his peace with God; then he was executed, and his head was given to the _Chaush_ to be taken to the sultan as proof that the mission had been faithfully accomplished. It is said that forty or fifty heads sometimes reached the court of Suleiman in a single day.[696]