On the head were worn conical or flat-topped caps, some having flaps to cover the ears and the back part of the head, while others enclosed the entire head, coming down under the chin, leaving only the face exposed to view. Women wore their hair long while with men the length of the hair proclaimed the rank, as the higher the rank the shorter the hair was worn, the sovereign alone having a closely cropped head. The ruling class wore a fringed cord of vicuña wool wound round the head three or four times, the color designating the rank of the wearer, that of the sovereign being crimson, of the heir to the throne yellow, and the higher officials wore other colors. Hair was not allowed to grow on the face and it was kept pulled out by means of small silver and copper tweezers. They wore sandals made of the hide of the llama or of vegetable fiber and they were fastened to the feet with cords. Another mark of rank, along with their colored fringed cord, was the wearing of studs in the lobe of the ear, the largest size having been permitted to the sovereign only, and the sizes diminished according to rank. These ear-ornaments were so heavy as to pull the lobes of the ears down, making them quite large, the sovereign's ears being distended nearly to his shoulders. Sometimes the nose and the lower lip were pierced and ornaments worn in them. They wore necklaces made of beads of colored shell and turquoise, finger-rings, anklets, and bracelets of silver and gold, and pins for fastening the cloaks. Tattooing was practiced, designs having been worked into the skin with a blue pigment. =Food, Drink, Narcotics.= Because of the country's lying for the most part in the tropics and also being of a mountainous nature, thus allowing different climatic conditions, there was a plant life as found in both tropical and temperate zones such as to offer a variety of food. In the uplands maize was one of the staple foods, which was usually eaten whole, roasted or boiled, maybe not used by them as bread except at festivals, and the leaves were eaten as a vegetable. Quinoa was another grain used by them, a kind of buckwheat. Another staple was the potato, most commonly used in the form of chuno, in which the potatoes were exposed to the frost for some time, then pounded and dried in the sun, which made quite nourishing food and could be stowed away and kept for some time. Beans and tomatoes were also used by them. On the lowlands along the coast were found bananas, cocoa-nuts, the quava, and the manioc. Birds were abundant, as were also fish, both from the lakes and the ocean. The llama and the deer and the wild sheep of the mountains were used as food, as was the flesh of some other animals. This flesh was often cut into strips and dried, which was called _charqui_, probably from which came the term "jerked" beef.