Modern investigation, however, does not quite bear out the above sweeping statements in their integrity, although the most conflicting theories have been enunciated. Doubtless, attention has been too much concentrated on the gross morphology of the brain, without taking into account microscopical appearances. Dr. Shuttleworth, in giving the result of his long experience at the Royal Albert Asylum says, "We have occasionally found, when least expected, extraordinary defects in brain conformation;... microscopic examination will discover in many instances some abnormality of structure, such as the preponderance of simply formed braincells devoid of processes, denoting persistence of fœtal structures; or, on the other hand, degenerative changes resulting from inflammatory atrophy."[23] Professor Luys, of Paris,[24] gives the result of the examination of the brain of 14 idiots, the anomalies observed being want of symmetry in the frontal lobes, and partial atrophy of the cortical folds especially of the frontal convolutions.[25] Quite recently, Dr. Andriessen, at a meeting of the Leeds and West Riding Medico-Chirurgical Society, exhibited specimens of the brains of epileptic idiots, which showed conditions of microgyria with atrophy and sclerosis of the convolutions. In considering the pathology of idiocy, I think sufficient attention has not been given to the chemical constitution of the cerebral substance. The most extravagant notions were at one time prevalent as to the rôle played by phosphorus in the animal economy; the Dutch naturalist, Moleschott, maintaining that "without phosphorus there was no thought." A celebrated chemist, Couerbe, also considered phosphorus to be the exciting principle of the brain, and according to him, the brain of ordinary men contained 2-1/2 per cent. of phosphorus, that of the idiot 1-1/2, and that of the madman 4 to 4-1/2; from these data he concluded, "that the absence of phosphorus in the brain reduced man to the condition of the brute; that a great excess of this element irritated the nervous system and plunged the individual into the frightful delirium which we call madness; and that a medium proportion re-established the equilibrium and produced the admirable harmony which is none else than the soul of the spiritualists."[26] Professor Janet, in criticising the above theory, remarks that the brain of fishes, who do not pass for great thinkers, contains a large amount of phosphorus, also that the statistics of M. Lassaigne have shown that the brain of madmen does not contain more phosphorus than that of sane individuals.[27] The late Bishop of Carlisle, in rebutting this phosphorus theory, remarks, "Why should we not go further and assert that there could be no thought without carbon or without any other element of which the human body is composed; for you can have no actual thought without a living creature, and no living creature without a body, and no body without carbon."[28]