applications of classification we have to surmount the two-fold obstacles which lie in the way, firstly (to use Kant's expression) of the faculty of making rules, and secondly of that of subsumption under rules. That is to say, even if we had agreed upon our classes, there would still be much doubt and dispute, in the case of things which did not readily lend themselves to be counted or measured, as to whether the odds were more or less than the assigned quantity. It is true that when we know the odds for or against an event, we can always state them explicitly without the necessity of first agreeing as to the usage of terms which shall imply them. But there would often be circumlocution and pedantry in so doing, and as long as modal terms are in practical use it would seem that there could be no harm, and might be great good, in arriving at some agreement as to the degree of probability which they should be generally understood to indicate. Bentham, as is well known, in despair of ever obtaining anything accurate out of the language of common life on this subject, was in favour of a direct appeal to the numerical standard. He proposed the employment, in judicial trials, of an instrument, graduated from 0 to 10, on which scale the witness was to be asked to indicate the degree of his belief of the facts to which he testified: similarly the judge might express the force with which he held his conclusion. The use of such a numerical scale, however, was to be optional only, not compulsory, as Bentham admitted that many persons might feel at a loss thus to measure the degree of their belief. (_Rationale of Judicial Evidence_, Bk. I., Ch. VI.) 24. Throughout this chapter we have regarded the modals as the nearest counterpart to modern Probability which was afforded by the old systems of logic. The reason for so regarding them is, that they represented some slight attempt, rude as it was, to recognize and measure certain gradations in the degree of our conviction, and to examine the bearing of such considerations upon our logical inferences. But although it is amongst the modals that the germs of the methods of Probability are thus to be sought; the true subject-matter of our science, that is, the classes of objects with which it is most appropriately concerned, are rather represented by another part of the scholastic logic. This was the branch commonly called Dialectic, in the old sense of that term. Dialectic, according to Aristotle, seems to have been a sort of sister art to Rhetoric. It was concerned with syllogisms differing in no way from demonstrative syllogisms, except that their premises were probable instead of certain. Premises of this kind he termed topics, and the syllogisms which dealt with them enthymemes. They were said to start from 'signs and likelihoods' rather than from axioms.[18]