Effect of Napoleonic Wars on Italian Feeling.--Austrian promises and performances in Lombardy.--Vincenzo Monti.--Ugo Foscolo.--Alessandro Manzoni.--Federigo Confalonieri.--Position of Sardinia.--Relations of Sardinia with Austria.--Reaction under Victor Emmanuel.--Ferdinand I. of Naples.--The Carbonari.--The Spanish rising.--The Spanish Constitution.--The Neapolitan rising.--Guglielmo Pepe.--The Conference at Troppau.--Palermo and the Constitution of 1812.--Divisions in the Liberal Camp.--Ferdinand's attitude.--The movement in Piedmont.--Santa Rosa.--Charles Albert.--"Voleva e non voleva."--The Students' rising.--The rising in Piedmont, and causes of its failure.--Reaction in Italy.--The first martyr.--The Greek rising.--Alexander of Russia.--George Canning.--Breaking of the Holy Alliance.--The Movements of 1830-31.--The Frankfort Decrees.--Metternich's second triumph. Of all the countries of Europe, none had been more affected than Italy, both for good and evil, by the Napoleonic wars; and in no part of Italy were the traces of these wars so evident as in Lombardy. Though settled liberty had been unknown there since the cities of the Lombard League had fallen under their petty tyrants; though any sense, even of national independence, must have ceased since the sixteenth century; yet the real misery of the position of a conquered country, the sense of an absolutely alien rule, seems hardly to have been fully realised by the Lombards, until the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713, had substituted the Austrian rule for that of the Spaniards. The Spanish tyranny, however cruel, had been softened to the Italians by the sense of community of race and similarity of language; and the readiness of the conquerors to inter-marry with the conquered had given hopes of an ultimate amalgamation between the races. But under the German rule there were no such modifications of the evils of conquest. The new rulers held aloof from the Italians; and the latter were reminded at every moment that they were not merely slaves, but slaves to an alien and unsympathetic master. When, then, an Italian, at the head of a French army, offered the Lombards deliverance from German rule; when he organized them into a separate legion, and showed special trust in them throughout his wars; when he established the Government of the Cis-Alpine Republic, and held out before their astonished eyes the vision of an united Italy, it was natural that such appeals should awaken hopes of a newer life, and a prouder position in the councils of Europe. It was true that their confidence had received terrible shocks. The horrible treachery of the Treaty of Campo Formio, the manipulation of the Constitution of the Cis-Alpine Republic, the gradual changes which tended to absorb it into the French Empire; these had been tolerably clear signs to the Lombards of what they might ultimately expect from their so-called liberator.