1st, _Candimaram_. It consists of two pieces of wood closely joined, and strongly fastened together. With this frail and simple vessel the Indians venture even out to sea. It is indeed often overset; but, as the person who directs it rows quite naked, and on his knees, he soon clambers back into his _Candimaram_, and escapes the fury of the waves[146]. 2d, _Toni_, _Mangi_, or _Vallam_. These are canoes, which consist of the trunk of a tree made hollow. 3d, _Ciangada_. This is the name given to a certain number of planks joined together so as to form a kind of raft. 4th, _Cemboca_. Is a broad boat or wherry, perfectly flat at the bottom. 5th, _Pàrram_. This is also a kind of wherry, nearly of a square form, and so narrow at the top that the aperture through which people enter it is scarcely a foot in diameter. These vessels are built on this construction, because they are employed for transporting the _nella_ and other articles, which would be infallibly spoiled if the sea-water should find admittance into them. 6th, _Koppel_ or _Padava_. This is the name given in the Malabar language to large ships which have from two to three masts, and are furnished with anchors, ropes, and sails. In the Samscred language they are called _Nau_, _Pòda_, and _Janapàtra_. The observation often repeated, that the Indians make little use of nails or iron-work in building their ships, is perfectly just. They can, indeed, dispense with both; for they join the planks together with the greatest ingenuity; pay the seams with different kinds of dissolved gum; and fill them up with the fine fibres of the coco-nut tree, so as to be impenetrable to the water. On the outside they daub them over with oil procured from pilchards and other fat substances, which render the wood smooth, and at the same time defend it from the saline particles of the sea-water, and from being destroyed by worms[147]. The properties of the magnet are at present as well known to the Indians as to other nations; but that they employed the compass in very early periods, is much to be doubted. It is probable that they then directed their course at sea by the monsoons, and the motion of the heavenly bodies. Many of the Arabs, however, still venture to cross the open sea to India without the help of the compass. And, indeed, when it is considered that the Indian sea during one half of the year is perfectly calm and still--that the sun remains only a short time below the horizon--that the nights are exceedingly serene, because the brightness of the stars is never obscured by thick vapours or clouds--that the wind blows invariably from one quarter, and that the currents never change their course, it will readily appear that such a passage may be attempted and happily effected without the help of that useful instrument.