Nationality asserted itself in spite of all attempts at repression. But the Hungarians, in their turn, held the Slav and Roumanian populations within their borders with an iron grasp and failed to gain their affection. THE ITALIAN WAR OF LIBERATION 1831, 1848–1849, 1859 and 1866–1867 Belligerents: The States of Italy. Austria. France. Cause: Italy, after the fall of Napoleon, was divided into separate ill-governed small states, with Venice and Lombardy in the hands of Austria. The idea of uniting Italy under one Government grew as the century advanced, and received fresh impetus from the revolutionary movements in Europe in 1830 and 1848. The society, “Young Italy,” under the guidance of Mazzini, kept the spirit of revolution alive, although several insurrections instigated by them failed. The expulsion of Austria became the central idea of the movement. Occasion: The quarrels between the smaller states: the hatred of the presence of Austria, who, under Metternich’s guidance, desired throughout to suppress the movement: the decline of Austrian power on the rise of Prussia: the intervention of France to prevent Austrian aggrandizement and to protect the Pope. Course of the Wars: The revolt in the Papal States in 1831 was suppressed by Austrian intervention. France also intervened, and the Austrian troops withdrew. In 1848 Sardinian troops advanced against Austria, but after much fighting round Verona were defeated at Santa Lucia. Civil war broke out between Naples and Sicily. Sardinia and Piedmont, under Victor Emmanuel and his Minister, Cavour, now took the lead. France became their ally in 1859. In spite of attempts at mediation by Great Britain, Austria presented an ultimatum, April 23, 1859. Napoleon III and the Allies won victories at Magenta and Solferino. By the _Peace of Villa Franca_ in July, followed by the _Treaty of Zurich_, November 10, 1859, Austria ceded Lombardy but not Venice. Tuscany, Parma Modena, and Romagna were united to Piedmont by their own vote. Savoy and Nice were ceded to France. In 1860 Garibaldi conquered Sicily and Naples. Piedmontese troops entered the Papal States. By 1861 all Italy, with the exception of Rome and Venice, was under Victor Emmanuel. In the North war broke out again. The Italians were defeated by Austria at Custozza, but after Königgrätz (see p. 50) the Austrians ceded Venice to France, and Napoleon III handed it over to Italy. This arrangement was confirmed by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 3, 1866, between Austria and Italy. In 1867 France defended the Papal States against Garibaldi’s invasion, and he was defeated at Mentana. Finally, in 1870, Napoleon III withdrew his troops from Papal territory, and on September 20th Victor Emmanuel entered Rome. Political Result: All Italy became united under one monarch with its capital at Rome. Victor Emmanuel was succeeded in 1878 by Humbert, the father of King Victor Emmanuel III. Remarks: