The rivalry between Austria and Italy did not die down, and there were still certain territories--_Italia irredenta_ (such as Trentino)--which remained in Austrian hands. THE CRIMEAN WAR 1854–1856 Belligerents: Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia. Russia. Cause: From 1830 onwards there was a growing estrangement between Great Britain and Russia. The Czar Nicholas believed that the dominion of the Turk in Europe was nearing its end, and cherished the ambition that Russia should acquire provinces of the Ottoman dominions. On the other hand, there was keen opposition in Great Britain to Russia’s expansion, and to the idea of Constantinople falling into her hands. Louis Napoleon had only two years previously become Emperor of the French. His dynastic ambitions made him eager for military glory. Sardinia joined the Allies for tactical reasons. Occasion: The French claimed the custody of the Holy Places in Palestine: the Russians made a counter-claim to the custody of the Holy Places and to a Protectorate over the Greek Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish Government, on the advice of the British Ambassador, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, refused to accept the Russian claims. Russian troops crossed the Pruth in June 1853, and a Turkish squadron was destroyed at Sinope in November. On the refusal of Russia to make her ships re-enter port in the Black Sea and evacuate the Danubian principalities, war was declared by France and England on March 27, 1854. Course of the War: The Crimea was invaded, and fighting continued there for two years. The Austrian attempt at mediation in May 1855, failed. The Russians were defeated at Alma and Inkerman, and Sevastopol, after a long siege, fell on September 9, 1855. The Russians captured Kars in November. Political Results: By the _Treaty of Paris_, March 30, 1856, the Black Sea was neutralized. An engagement was made by all the Powers to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire: the Sultan promised to give equality of treatment to his Christian subjects. The Danubian provinces were granted independence under the sovereignty of the Sultan. Remarks: This treaty was absolutely barren. The Sultan’s promise was never acted on: the neutrality of the Black Sea was maintained only till 1870: and when the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was assailed in later years none of the signatory Powers intervened in its defence. But at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the Powers partitioned parts of the Ottoman Empire. So far from settling any disputes this war caused dissensions which led to other wars. THE INDIAN MUTINY 1857–1858 Belligerents: Great Britain. Native Indians. Cause: