Out of a language so constructed it is easy to understand the development of such an alphabet. The confusions of its use are also manifest. Thus, in the changes of signification of the Semitic root word, _k-t-b_, signifying “write” we have, when spoken, _ka-ta-ba_, “he has written,” _ku-ta-ba_, “it has been written,” _ka-ta-bu_, “writing,” and _ka-tu-bu_, “written.” In script, however, whatever the signification, in ancient form we have simply _k-t-b_ with the many meanings supposed to be explained by the context. In early Semitic script there was no notation for vowel sounds, nor did these appear until a comparatively recent date. From this source, as well as from the similarities which these consonantal signs assumed, have arisen many embarrassments in the translation of Hebrew, and curious evidences in textual criticism. With the Semitic letters, however, we have reached the first alphabet; not the first appearance of letters, or alphabetic characters, but that stage in the evolution of letters where these were used independently to express words. At this point, surveying the course from its beginnings, we find the tendencies of progression are, first, simple pictures of objects; again, these simple pictures representing ideas, then as denoting sound or the names of objects, later on as syllabic signs, and finally as letters. Along this line of progress there are, however, certain curious phenomena which record the historical course of writing as distinctly as do the successive deposits of geological periods. While the tendency of all systems of writing is from ideographism to alphabetism, not all reached this latter stage; some gradually reached phonetism, where they stopped. Others advanced to syllabism and there remained. Another singular circumstance is that this progress in phonetism is always without giving up ideographism; that every stage is still picture writing. Again, we find each stage of progress including previous steps of advance, until at last, as in the Egyptian hieroglyphics, we have the full series of pictures of objects and pictures for sound with a formidable array of determinatives and other special signs and significations. This order of progress has been found so constantly true with all original systems of writing among all races, near and remote, that it may be regarded as a natural, universal law. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [Illustration: VALUABLE COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE OF HIEROGLYPHIC AND HIERATIC FIGURES. ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Footnote 2: Herodotus. Melopemene, IV 131-133. Footnote 3: Confucius states, in the famous historical work, Gih King, that “In great antiquity knotted cords served them (the Chinese) for the administration of affairs; and that later, the saintly Fou Hi replaced these by writing.” CHAPTER IV.