198. The need of exact methods 161 Quadrats 199. Uses 161 200. Possible objections 163 Kinds of Quadrats and Their Use 201. Size and kinds 164 202. Tapes and stakes 164 203. Locating quadrats 165 The List Quadrat 204. Description 165 205. Manner of use 166 206. Table of abundance 166 The Chart Quadrat 207. Description and use 167 208. The chart 168 209. Mapping 168 210. Factors and photographs 170 The Permanent Quadrat 211. Description and uses 170 212. Manner of use 172 The Denuded Quadrat 213. Description 173 214. Methods of denuding and recording 174 215. Physical factors 175 Aquatic Quadrats 216. Scope 175 Transects 217. The transect 176 The Line Transect 218. Description and method 176 219. The location and size 177 The Belt Transect 220. Details 178 The Permanent Transect 221. Advantages 179 222. Details 179 The Denuded Transect 223. 180 The Layer Transect 224. 180 Ecotone Charts 225. 181 The Migration Circle 226. Purpose 182 227. Location and method 182 228. The denuded circle 183 229. Photographs 183 Cartography 230. Value of cartographic methods 183 231. Standard scale 184 232. Color scheme 184 233. Formation and vegetation maps 185