[48] Hand-book of Archæology. London, 1867, pp. 253, 289. Recently Dr. Fritz Hommel, in his, _Der babylonische Ursprung der ägyptischen Kultur_, München, 1892, has endeavored to prove the contrary. IV. THE OLDEST SCARABS. CLASSIFICATION AND VALUE OF THE SCARAB TO THE SCHOLAR OF TO-DAY. LARGE INSCRIBED HISTORICAL SCARABS. The oldest scarabs, as to which one can feel any certainty of their being genuine, are those I have mentioned bearing the name of Neb-Ka incised on the under surface. This pharaoh was of the IIIrd Dynasty and was living according to Brugsch-Bey, (3933-3900 B.C.)[49] That would make 5,826 years past according to Brugsch. Auguste Mariette would make it much more ancient. These scarabs were made of pottery and glazed a pale green. It has been stated by some archæologists that the oldest scarabs were not engraved, the under part being made to represent the legs of the beetle folded under its body, but this is only a supposition, as the age can only be determined with any certainty, by the inscriptions incised on the under part and those not so inscribed, may be of different periods, some of very late times. The forms usually met with in the tombs are, first; those with the lower part as a flat level surface for the purpose of having an inscription incised upon it; those having the engraving incised upon such a surface; and those with the legs inserted under them in imitation of nature. Sometimes the head and thorax are replaced by a human face, and occasionally the body or the elytra have the form of the Egyptian royal cap. They often hold between the fore-legs representations of the sun. The smaller scarabs have as subjects engraved upon them, representations of the Egyptian deities, the names of the reigning pharaohs, of queens, animals, religious symbols, sacred, civil and funeral emblems, names of priests, nobles, officers of state and private individuals, ornaments, plants, and sometimes dates and numbers written in ciphers. Some have upon them mottoes, such as: "Good Luck," "A Happy Life," etc., being used for sealing letters, etc., and as presents. The larger sized have frequently texts and parts of chapters from the Book of the Dead. We can therefore make a general classification of scarabs into: I. Mythological or Religious, containing subjects, figures or inscriptions, connected with kosmogony, kosmology, or, religion. II. Historical, containing royal cartouches and names of men, and figures relating to civil customs. III. Physiographical, containing animals or plants connected with consecrated symbols. IV. Funereal, connected with the _Ka_ or life of the mummy in this world, and with the journey of his _Ba_ or responsible soul, through the under-world. V. Talisman or Amulets, to preserve the wearer from injury in this world, by men or by evil spirits. VI. Signets or Seals for official use, to verify documents or evidence, protect property and correspondence, etc.