Immediate Causes-- The States General-- Confiscation of Church Property-- Persecution of Religious Orders-- The Civil Constitution-- Sorrow of Pope Pius VI.-- His Condemnation of the Civil Constitution-- The Constituent Assembly-- Massacres of September-- The Convention-- Changing the Calendar-- Persecution of Catholics-- The Reign of Terror-- The Goddess of Reason-- The Worship of the Supreme Being-- The Council of Five Hundred, or the Directory-- Arrest and Exile of Pope Pius VI.-- The Death of the Pontiff in France Page 51 CHAPTER III. OPENING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. State of France at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century-- The Conclave of Venice-- Cardinal Chiaramonti Elected Pope Pius VII.-- Sketch of His Life-- Cardinal Consalvi-- Napoleon Makes Proposals of Peace With the Pope-- Preliminary Deliberations for the Concordat-- Diplomacy of Cardinal Consalvi-- The Concordat Signed and Ratified-- Text of the Concordat-- The Organic Articles-- They Are Repudiated by the Pope-- The Case of Jerome Bonaparte-- The Coronation of Napoleon-- The Emperor Becomes a Persecutor-- Excommunication of Napoleon-- Arrest of Pope Pius VII.-- His Imprisonment at Savona-- The Council of Paris-- The Pope is Imprisoned at Fontainebleau-- Defeat of Napoleon-- Triumphant Return of Pius VII. to Rome Page 105 CHAPTER IV. ANTI-CHRISTIANISM IN ROME. The Holy Alliance-- The Carbonari-- Mazzini and Young Italy-- Hostile Congresses-- Accession of Pope Pius IX.-- Generous Dispositions of the Holy Father-- Eighteen Hundred and Forty-eight-- Flight of the Pope-- Garibaldi-- Rome Retaken by the Papal Allies-- Conspiracy Against the Holy See-- Iniquities of Piedmont-- Hypocrisy of Napoleon III.-- Usurpation of Victor Emmanuel-- Fall of Rome in 1870-- Accession of Leo XIII.-- Leo XIII. and Labor-- Accession of Pius X.-- Modernism-- The Methodist in Rome-- The Insult of Mayor Nathan-- Character of Pope Pius X Page 177 CHAPTER V. THE KULTURKAMPF IN GERMANY. (1) The Causes-- The Liberalism of the Rationalists-- The Liberalism of Pseudo-Catholics-- Günther-- Frohschammer-- Doellinger-- The Desire for Protestant Ascendancy-- The Hatred for Catholic Nations-- The Determination of Caesarism to Reduce All Religion to the Domination of the State-- (2) The Men-- Bismarck-- Bishop Ketteler-- Windthorst-- Malincrodt-- The Centre Party-- The Laws of Hate-- May Laws-- Courage of the Bishops-- War of Violence-- The Turn of the Tide-- Reconciliation Page 209 CHAPTER VI. THE THIRD REPUBLIC.