7. +The First Keltic Element.+-- This first contribution contains the following words: _Breeches_, _clout_, _crock_, _cradle_, _darn_, _dainty_,_ mop_, _pillow_; _barrow_ (a funeral mound), _glen_, _havoc_, _kiln_, _mattock_, _pool_. It is worthy of note that the first eight in the list are the names of domestic-- some even of kitchen-- things and utensils. It may, perhaps, be permitted us to conjecture that in many cases the Saxon invader married a British wife, who spoke her own language, taught her children to speak their mother tongue, and whose words took firm root in the kitchen of the new English household. The names of most rivers, mountains, lakes, and hills are, of course, Keltic; for these names would not be likely to be changed by the English new-comers. There are two names for rivers which are found-- in one form or another-- in every part of Great Britain. These are the names +Avon+ and +Ex+. The word +Avon+ means simply _water_. We can conceive the children on a farm near a river speaking of it simply as “the water”; and hence we find fourteen Avons in this island. +Ex+ also means _water_; and there are perhaps more than twenty streams in Great Britain with this name. The word appears as +Ex+ in +Exeter+ (the older and fuller form being _Exanceaster_-- the camp on the Exe); as +Ax+ in +Axminster+; as +Ox+ in +Oxford+; as +Ux+ in +Uxbridge+; and as +Ouse+ in Yorkshire and other eastern counties. In Wales and Scotland, the hidden +k+ changes its place and comes at the end. Thus in Wales we find +Usk+; and in Scotland, +Esk+. There are at least eight Esks in the kingdom of Scotland alone. The commonest Keltic name for a mountain is +Pen+ or +Ben+ (in Wales it is _Pen_; in Scotland the flatter form _Ben_ is used). We find this word in England also under the form of +Pennine+; and, in Italy, as +Apennine+. 8. +The Second Keltic Element.+-- The Normans came from Scandinavia early in the tenth century, and wrested the valley of the Seine out of the hands of Charles the Simple, the then king of the French. The language spoken by the people of France was a broken-down form of spoken Latin, which is now called French; but in this language they had retained many Gaulish words out of the old Gaulish language. Such are the words: _Bag_, _bargain_, _barter_; _barrel_, _basin_, _basket_, _bucket_; _bonnet_, _button_, _ribbon_; _car_, _cart_; _dagger_, _gown_; _mitten_, _motley_; _rogue_; _varlet_, _vassal_, _wicket_. The above words were brought over to Britain by the Normans; and they gradually took an acknowledged place among the words of our own language, and have held that place ever since.