In ordinary average, dry, solid ground, a good foundation can usually be obtained at a moderate depth. The removal of a few feet of the surface layers will generally lead to a good hard stratum of natural material sufficiently firm to carry the abutments and piers of railway bridges and viaducts. Two or more footings are usually adopted so as to distribute the weight over an increased area, as shown in Fig. 108. Where the weight to be carried is considerable, it is better to increase the number of the footings, and give them a smaller projection, as in Fig. 109, rather than have a lesser number and greater projection, as in Fig. 108. There is greater liability of fracture of the material in the latter than in the former. Care must be taken to distinguish between made ground and natural ground. Hollows which have been filled in must not be relied upon to sustain heavy weights; the material may have been consolidating for years, but it is safer to cut through it and found upon the natural stratum beneath. [Illustration: Fig. 109, 108, 110, 111, 124, 113, 114, 115, 125] Soils of a clayey nature must be dealt with very cautiously. If the 113 ground be fairly level, and the material firm, a solid foundation may be obtained, but the excavated portion should be covered up as quickly as possible to prevent any decomposing action taking place upon exposure to the open air. The expansive nature of some clays must be carefully kept in view, so as to guard against any disturbance in the finished foundation. There are some descriptions of shale which when first opened out appear to have the solidity of hard rock, and yet, after a few days’ exposure to the atmosphere, are changed to the consistency of soft mud. Sand, being composed of such small particles, is almost incompressible, and makes an excellent foundation so long as it can be retained in its position. Little or no settlement will take place if the sand remains undisturbed, but so soon as it comes under the influence of running springs, or underground drainage, the fine particles of the sand will be gradually but surely carried away with the water, and the entire foundation be undermined. The opening out of a neighbouring excavation, or the carrying out of some low-level drainage, would endanger a construction which otherwise would be solid and permanent. In many cases of soft ground, more particularly abroad, sand piles have been adopted and have given very good results. The system is carried out by first driving a large wooden pile down through the soft material into the more solid stratum below. The timber pile is then carefully withdrawn and the cavity filled with clean sand. The number and distance apart of these sand piles will depend upon the nature of the ground and description and weight of structure to be carried.